All … Louis XVI heard 33 charges. Given overwhelming evidence of Louis’ collusion with the invaders during the ongoing war with Austria and Prussia, the verdict was a foregone conclusion. The next day, the Convention abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. Its laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights—they introduced the revolutionary calendar in 1793, closed churches in and around Paris as a part of a movement of dechristianization, tried and executed Marie Antoinette, and instituted the Law of Suspects, among other initiatives. The execution of the Girondins, moderate republicans, enemies of the more radical Jacobins. The leftists were 136 Jacobins (still including the party later known as the Girondins or Girondists) and Cordeliers (a populist group, whose many members would later become the radical Montagnards ). Soon, the King dismissed Girondins from the Ministry. Its dominance marked the Reign of Terror. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); The Legislative Assembly, the legislature of revolutionary France from October 1, 1791 to September 20, 1792, provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law-making. The White Terror of 1795 resulted in numerous imprisonments and several hundred executions, almost exclusively of people on the political left. By the same token, it rejected democratic elections and kept its old leaders in power. On November 3, 1795, a bicameral parliament called the Directory was established and the National Convention ceased to exist. Napoleon’s Italian victories overshadowed his Egyptian defeats during the French Revolutionary Wars, while his position at home strengthened after the Directory became dependent on the military. On January 21, 1793, the former Louis XVI, now simply named Citoyen Louis Capet (Citizen Louis Capet), was executed by guillotine. It acquired its nickname after being sung in Paris by volunteers from Marseille marching on the capital. Catching the attention of the Committee of Public Safety, he was put in charge of the artillery of France’s Army of Italy. He also brought out 1,000 wounded men. The Reign of Terror was a violent period of the French Revolution, beginning at some point in 1793 and continuing until the fall of Robespierre in mid-1794. Thus, the Girondins ceased to be a political force. The Legislative Assembly decreed the provisional suspension of King Louis XVI and the convocation of a National Convention which was to draw up a constitution. Bonaparte was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24. Following the fall of Robespierre and the Thermidorian Reaction in July 1794, Napoleon, although closely associated with Robespierre, was released from the arrest within two weeks and asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions in the context of France’s war with Austria. In the Montenotte Campaign, he separated the armies of Sardinia and Austria, defeating each one in turn, and then forced a peace on Sardinia. The number who died remains disputed, ranging from a low of 30 to a high of 580. 1,400 royalists died and the rest fled. The new régime met opposition from Jacobins on the left and Royalists (secretly subsidized by the British government) on the right. Most Montagnards (radical republicans) favored judgement and execution, while the Girondins (moderate republicans) were divided concerning Louis’s fate, with some arguing for royal inviolability, others for clemency, and still others for either lesser punishment or death. The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the Reign of Terror. They were staunch constitutional monarchists, firm in their defense of the King against the popular agitation. Evaluate the decision to execute the king and queen. Coup d’état of 18 Fructidor, year V (September 4, 1797). The National Convention believed that the Committee needed to rule with “near dictatorial power” and gave it new and expansive political powers to respond quickly to popular demands. Its power peaked between August 1793 and July 1794 under the leadership of Robespierre, who established a virtual dictatorship. In April 1793, the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety. For punishment, 361 voted for death without conditions, just carrying the vote by a marginal majority. Some historians dispute these numbers and estimate that the Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 Feuillants (the right), about 330 Jacobins (including Girondins; the left), and about 350 deputies, who did not belong to any definite party but voted most often with the left. In the system of slavery, people were forced to work, treated as properties and hence sold, bought and forced to work against their will. These negotiations resulted in the Treaty of Campo Formio, and Bonaparte returned to Paris in December as a hero. The period of the Jacobin rule known as the Reign of Terror, under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, was the first time in history that terror became an official government policy with the stated aim to use violence to achieve a higher political goal. As a baby, he was attacked by a bull and run over by pigs, which, along with smallpox, resulted in the disfigurement and scarring of his face. The next phase of the conflict featured the French invasion of the Habsburg heartlands. This made Napoleon the greatest enemy of the same government that relied on his protection. Representatives from the first and second estates were present and the third estate was represented by its prosperous and educated members. The Reign of Terror was a dark and violent period of time during the French Revolution. Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, so he ordered the garrison and 1,400 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning to save bullets. Not a single deputy voted “no,” although 26 attached some condition to their votes. The war declared on April 20, 1792, against Austria (soon joined by Prussia) started as a disaster for the French. It succeeded the Legislative Assembly and founded the First Republic after the Insurrection of August 10, 1792. Most Montagnards (radical republicans) favored judgement and execution, while the Girondins (moderate republicans) were divided concerning Louis’s fate. Traditionally, historians have also identified a centrist faction called the Plain, but many historians tend to blur the line between the Plain and the Girondins. Its achievements were minor and the approach reflected another turn towards dictatorship and the failure of liberal democracy. La_fournu00e9e_des_Girondins_10-11-1793.jpg. Terror was not an instrument of class war. They reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and initiated elections for a new legislative body. It was ratified by public referendum but never put into force. The left was opposed to Robespierre because he rejected atheism and was not sufficiently radical. In 1793, Robespierre joined a 12-member committee of public safety called the national convention. As a result of Robespierre’s insistence on associating Terror with Virtue, his efforts to make the republic a morally united patriotic community became equated with the endless bloodshed. During the Reign of Terror, the new government issued laws ordering the closure of women's clubs and banning their political activities. Explain the “Reign of Terror” in brief. He was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions in the context of France’s war with Austria. In this 14-month period about 17000 people including innocents were executed. In July 1794, Robespierre was overthrown, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. The following day, the Convention’s president Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac presented it with the indictment and decreed the interrogation of Louis XVI. They reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. The time between 1792 and 1794 was dominated by the radical ideology until the execution of Robespierre in July 1794. It was triggered by a vote of the National Convention to execute Maximilien Robespierre, Louis Antoine de Saint-Just, and several other leading members of the revolutionary government. The Convention’s secretary read the charges: “the French people” accused Louis of committing “a multitude of crimes in order to establish [his] tyranny by destroying its liberty.” Louis XVI heard 33 charges. The Committee carried out thousands of executions against supposed enemies of the young Republic. Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men: 1,500 were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thousands perished from disease. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of 1795. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt and screened corruption in others. A general in the French army and leader of the 1799 coup that overthrew the Directory. Violence, arbitrary and dubious forms of justice, and heavy-handed repression were methods commonly employed by the Directory. They arrested and executed anyone who they suspected might not be loyal to the revolution. On November 3, 1795, the Directory – a bicameral parliament – was established and the National Convention ceased to exist. Most historians divide the National Convention into two main factions: the Girondins and the Mountain or the Montagnards (in this context, also referred to as Jacobins). The period from 1793 to 1794 was known as Reign of Terror: 1. In October 1795, the elections for the new Councils decreed by the new constitution took place, with the universal male suffrage of 1793 replaced by limited suffrage based on property. It never had a strong base of popular support. Napoleon became “first consul” for ten years, and appointed two consuls who had consultative voices only. 65 deputies were deported to Guiana, 42 royalist newspapers were closed, and 65 journalists and editors were deported. On January 21, 1815 Louis XVI and his wife’s remains were reburied in the Basilica of Saint-Denis where in 1816 his brother, King Louis XVIII, had a funerary monument erected by Edme Gaulle. The Austrians were alarmed by the French thrust that reached all the way to Leoben, not very far from Vienna, and finally decided to sue for peace. In June, the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote but not enacted. However, the slavery began to be criticized in France. She was guillotined on October 16, 1793. The Reign of Terror was started on 5 September, 1793. The local leaders of this new stage of the revolution were assisted in their work by the fear of invasion by the allied army. On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire of the Year VIII) Napoleon Bonaparte staged the Coup of 18 Brumaire, which installed the Consulate. Across Europe, conservatives were horrified and monarchies called for war against revolutionary France. The Directory defeated a resurgence of the War in the Vendée, the royalist-led civil war in the Vendée region, but failed in its venture to support the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and create an Irish Republic. When the king formed a new cabinet mostly of Feuillants, the breach with the king and the Assembly on one side and the majority of the. The members were generally young, and since none had sat in the previous Assembly they largely lacked national political experience. The trade of slave started in seventeenth century. Louis repeatedly vetoed decrees proposed by the Assembly and the war against Austria (soon joined by Prussia) intensified tensions. Upon Father Edgeworth’s advice, he avoided a farewell scene with his family. Not a single deputy voted “no,” although 26 attached some condition to their votes. Although, he considered himself to be the leader of this group, and soon began adopting methods which tortured the people of the revolution. The Girondins represented the more moderate elements of the Convention and protested the vast influence held in the Convention by Parisians. In 1793, Robespierre joined a 12-member committee of public safety called the national convention. Stories and images of the Reign of Terror have come to dominate our perceptions of the French Revolution. Thus, the First Coalition was formed. The members of the upper house, the Council of Ancients, were chosen by lot from among all of the deputies. The patronage of the directors was ill-bestowed and the general maladministration heightened their unpopularity. For example - Many state schools were created, schooling was made compulsory for all girls, marriage against the will of girl was prohibited, divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both women and men, they could train for jobs, could run businesses, could become artists. This led to a political contest between the more moderate Girondists and the more radical Montagnards inside the Convention, with rumor used as a weapon by both sides. There were 721 voters in total. When elections were held, most of its candidates were defeated. The Directory was continually at war with foreign coalitions. The defeat of the royalist insurrection earned Bonaparte sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new government, the Directory. Expert Answer: The period from 1793 to 1794 in France is called the Reign of Terror. French merchants bought slave mainly from Africa. The defeat of the royalist insurrection extinguished the threat to the Convention and earned Bonaparte sudden fame, wealth, and the patronage of the new government, the Directory. These documents, despite the likely gaps and pre-selection showed the duplicity of advisers and ministers—at least those that Louis XVI trusted—who had set up parallel policies. The failing economy and high cost of food especially hurt the poor. Louis XVI, on 5 May 1789, called an assembly to pass proposals for new taxes. They sold flowers, fruits, vegetables and employed as servant in house hold. The period from 1793 to 1794 was referred to as the ‘Reign of Terror’ because of the following reasons: Maximilian Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. In June 1792, 80,000 armed sans-culottes surrounded the Convention. 800px-Le_Du00e9part_des_Volontaires_La_Marseillaise_par_Rude_Arc_de_Triomphe_Etoile_Paris.jpg. It served to further highlight the convention’s fear of enemies of the Revolution. The execution of Louis XVI united all European governments, including Spain, Naples, and the Netherlands, against the Revolution. In July 1793, following the defeat at the Convention of the Girondists, the prominent leaders of the radical Jacobins—Maximilien Robespierre and Saint-Just —were added to the Committee. Little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. In early 1799, he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee). Answers. With Robespierre the sole remaining strongman of the Revolution following the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat and the executions of Jacques Hébert, Georges Danton, and Camille Desmoulins, his apparent total grasp on power became increasingly illusory, especially support from factions to his right. Since the 1990s, and especially after September 2001, terrorism has replaced Communism as a major world political media headline. Two elected legislative councils would appoint an executive committee of five members, called Directory which would finally run the government. The Thermidorian regime excluded the remaining Montagnards from power, even those who had joined in conspiring against Robespierre and Saint-Just. Napoleon Bonaparte, aged 23, lieutenant-colonel of a battalion of Corsican Republican volunteers, paitning by Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux, ca. At that time Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. In April 1793, members of the Montagnards went on to establish the Committee of Public Safety under Robespierre, which would be responsible for the Terror (September 5, 1793 – July 28, 1794), the bloodiest and one of the most controversial phases of the French Revolution. For historians of revolutionary movements, the term Thermidor has come to mean the phase in some revolutions when power slips from the hands of the original revolutionary leadership and a radical regime is replaced by a more conservative regime, sometimes to the point at which the political pendulum swings back towards something resembling a pre-revolutionary state. In October 1793, a new law made all suspected priests and persons who harbored them liable to summary execution. 379 members of the National Convention, for the most part moderate republicans, were elected to the new legislature. State finances were in total disarray. Not all of the conspiratorial groupings were ideologically motivated. Bonaparte was promoted to brigadier general at the age of 24. Owing to the abstention of aristocrats and anti-republicans and the fear of victimization, the voter turnout was low – 11.9% of the electorate. This ended the specifically republican phase of the French Revolution. attempt to explain sudden attacks on civilian targets should doubt the existence of a distinct, coherent class of actors (terrorists) who specialize in a unitary form of political action (terror) and thus should establish a separate variety of politics (terror-ism). Given overwhelming evidence of Louis’s collusion with the invaders during the ongoing war with Austria and Prussia, the verdict was a foregone conclusion. In the first encounter between the two armies, Napoleon pushed back his opponents and advanced deep into Austrian territory. Bonaparte and his family fled to the French mainland in June 1793 because of the conflict with Paoli. The sans-culottes, exasperated by the inadequacies of the government, invaded the Convention and overthrew the Girondins. Despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. This left Barras and his republican allies in control again but dependent on Bonaparte, who proceeded to peace negotiations with Austria. Government led by Robespierre issued many laws among which ceiling maximum wages and price and rationing were main. Explain the structure and role of the Legislative Assembly. Those on the right who wished to restore the monarchy by putting Louis XVIII on the throne, and those on the left who would have renewed the Reign of Terror tried but failed to overthrow the Directory. Resistance could be declared as treason and punished by guillotine. At this time, he was a fervent Corsican nationalist. The political deadlock, which had repercussions all over France, eventually drove both major factions to accept dangerous allies, royalists in the case of Girondins and the sans-culottes in that of the Montagnards. The execution of Louis XVI united all European governments, including Spain, Naples, and the Netherlands, against the Revolution. The foundation of the Terror was centered around the April 1793 creation of the Committee of Public Safety. Any person who did not agree with his policies was guillotined. The Jacobins identified themselves with the popular movement and the sans-culottes, who in turn saw popular violence as a political right. His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them (their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone). Maximillien Robespierre played a major role during the Reign of Terror. The royal family became prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy. During the French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleon was successful in a daring invasion of Italy. Louis was to be put to death. The French army carried out Bonaparte’s plan in the Battle of Saorgio in April 1794 and then advanced to seize Ormea in the mountains. After the victories in the Italian campaign and despite the defeats in the Egyptian campaign, Napoleon was welcomed in France as a hero. On November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire of the Year VIII), Napoleon Bonaparte staged the Coup of 18 Brumaire which installed the Consulate. The new Convention, occupied mostly with matters of war, did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793. Any person who did not agree with his policies was guillotined. The Jacobins identified themselves with the popular movement and the sans-culottes, who in turn saw popular violence as a political right. Henry Singleton, "The Storming of the Bastille." She was guillotined on October 16, 1793. The prime mover, however, for the events of Thermidor 9 was a Montagnard conspiracy led by Jean-Lambert Tallien and Bourdon de l’Oise, which was gradually coalescing and came to pass when the Montagnards finally swayed the deputies of the right over to their side (Robespierre and Saint-Just were themselves Montagnards). 75 members sat in the National Constituent Assembly and 183 in the Legislative Assembly. It also increasingly depended on the Army in foreign and domestic affairs, including finance. The hostility towards Robespierre did not just vanish with his execution. He was guillotined on July 28. As a wartime measure, the Committee was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. This effectively led to Bonaparte’s dictatorship and in 1804 to his proclamation as emperor. Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The people who were involved with Robespierre became the target, including many members of the Jacobin club, their supporters, and individuals suspected of being past revolutionaries. During the Reign of Terror, the sans-culottes and the Hébertists put pressure on the National Convention delegates and contributed to the overall instability of France. Break down the politics of fear and how Robespierre used them to control France. When the king formed a new cabinet mostly of Feuillants, the breach between the king on the one hand and the Assembly and the majority of the common people of Paris on the other widened. Churches were shut down and their buildings were converted into offices and barracks. He also authorized the French to loot treasures. The next day, the Directory annulled the elections of about two hundred deputies in 53 departments. However, many more were murdered without formal sentences pronounced in a court of law. Review Napoleon’s career from the military to the Directory. Two elected legislative councils would run the government. Although the Girondins and the Jacobins were both on the extreme left and shared many of the same radical republican convictions, the Jacobins were more brutally efficient in setting up a war government. The massacre of these groups became known as the White Terror. 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